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A consummate politician and diplomat, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754–1838) was an extraordinary survivor. Appointed bishop of Autun by Louis XVI – he resigned from his diocese in 1791 and was excommunicated after taking the oath of loyalty to the civil constitution of the clergy – he held political office during the Revolution, under Napoleon, during the Restoration and under Louis-Philippe, whom he served as ambassador to London until he retired in 1834. He was Grand Chamberlain under Napoleon from 1804 to 1809, and under the Restoration, serving both Louis XVIII and Charles X between 1815 and 1830. Talleyrand was responsible for the selection by the provisional government of Joseph-Dominique Louis (1775–1837) as minister of finance in April 1814, an appointment later confirmed by Louis XVIII. Abbé Louis served five times in this capacity.<ref name="donougher" /> | A consummate politician and diplomat, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754–1838) was an extraordinary survivor. Appointed bishop of Autun by Louis XVI – he resigned from his diocese in 1791 and was excommunicated after taking the oath of loyalty to the civil constitution of the clergy – he held political office during the Revolution, under Napoleon, during the Restoration and under Louis-Philippe, whom he served as ambassador to London until he retired in 1834. He was Grand Chamberlain under Napoleon from 1804 to 1809, and under the Restoration, serving both Louis XVIII and Charles X between 1815 and 1830. Talleyrand was responsible for the selection by the provisional government of Joseph-Dominique Louis (1775–1837) as minister of finance in April 1814, an appointment later confirmed by Louis XVIII. Abbé Louis served five times in this capacity.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
| − | ===Feast of the Federation=== | + | ===Feast of the Federation===Celebrations on the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, called the Feast of Federation, took the form of a military parade and an open-air mass held on the Champ de Mars, for which a huge temporary amphitheatre was constructed by volunteers.<ref name="donougher" /> |
| − | Celebrations on the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, called the Feast of Federation, took the form of a military parade and an open-air mass held on the Champ de Mars, for which a huge temporary amphitheatre was constructed by volunteers.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
===Champ de Mai=== | ===Champ de Mai=== | ||
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Louis XVIII was known to be fond of quoting Horace. Alexandre Dumas made much of this in a scene in ''The Count of Monte Cristo'' (1844), ch. 10. Hugo himself translated poems of Horace.<ref name="donougher" /> | Louis XVIII was known to be fond of quoting Horace. Alexandre Dumas made much of this in a scene in ''The Count of Monte Cristo'' (1844), ch. 10. Hugo himself translated poems of Horace.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
| − | ===Mathurin Bruneau=== | + | ===Mathurin Bruneau===An impostor who claimed to be the son of Louis XVI, Bruneau (1784–1822), a cobbler by trade, was tried in 1818 and imprisoned at Mont St-Michel, where he died.<ref name="donougher" /> |
| − | An impostor who claimed to be the son of Louis XVI, Bruneau (1784–1822), a cobbler by trade, was tried in 1818 and imprisoned at Mont St-Michel, where he died.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
===The French Academy... through Study=== | ===The French Academy... through Study=== | ||
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An active Revolutionary (he was a member of the Convention and voted for the execution of Louis XVI), Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), whose Death of Marat is perhaps his best-known painting, went into exile in Brussels, and is buried there. Poet, dramatist and politician, Antoine Arnault (1766–1834), minister of public education during the Hundred Days, was exiled in 1816 and his membership of the French Academy withdrawn. He was allowed to return to France in 1819 and was re-elected to the Academy in 1829. A distinguished mathematician and engineer, Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) was also a leading politician. As a member of the Convention he voted for the execution of Louis XVI, then in 1794 contributed to the downfall of Robespierre. He was the great organizer of the French Revolutionary Army, and one of the first five directors of the Directory. Appointed minister of war in 1800 by First Consul Napoleon, he resigned from public office in 1804 after Napoleon was crowned emperor but returned as minister of the interior during the Hundred Days. He was exiled in 1815 and died in Magdeburg.<ref name="donougher" /> | An active Revolutionary (he was a member of the Convention and voted for the execution of Louis XVI), Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), whose Death of Marat is perhaps his best-known painting, went into exile in Brussels, and is buried there. Poet, dramatist and politician, Antoine Arnault (1766–1834), minister of public education during the Hundred Days, was exiled in 1816 and his membership of the French Academy withdrawn. He was allowed to return to France in 1819 and was re-elected to the Academy in 1829. A distinguished mathematician and engineer, Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) was also a leading politician. As a member of the Convention he voted for the execution of Louis XVI, then in 1794 contributed to the downfall of Robespierre. He was the great organizer of the French Revolutionary Army, and one of the first five directors of the Directory. Appointed minister of war in 1800 by First Consul Napoleon, he resigned from public office in 1804 after Napoleon was crowned emperor but returned as minister of the interior during the Hundred Days. He was exiled in 1815 and died in Magdeburg.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
| − | ===Soult== | + | ===Soult==Marshal Soult (1769–1851) joined the army in 1785 as a private soldier, and was appointed marshal in 1804. Having rallied to Napoleon during the Hundred Days (he was Napoleon’s chief of staff at Waterloo), he went into exile until 1819. Displaying considerable political opportunism, he was made a peer by Charles X and went on to serve under Louis-Philippe as minister of war, minister of foreign affairs, and several times as prime minister. He represented the French government at the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838.<ref name="donougher" /> |
| − | Marshal Soult (1769–1851) joined the army in 1785 as a private soldier, and was appointed marshal in 1804. Having rallied to Napoleon during the Hundred Days (he was Napoleon’s chief of staff at Waterloo), he went into exile until 1819. Displaying considerable political opportunism, he was made a peer by Charles X and went on to serve under Louis-Philippe as minister of war, minister of foreign affairs, and several times as prime minister. He represented the French government at the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
===Descartes=== | ===Descartes=== | ||
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===the statue of Henri IV=== | ===the statue of Henri IV=== | ||
An equestrian statue of Henri IV was erected at the end of the Pont-Neuf in 1614. It was melted down by Revolutionaries in 1792, and replaced in 1818 with a replica commissioned by Louis XVIII.<ref name="donougher" /> | An equestrian statue of Henri IV was erected at the end of the Pont-Neuf in 1614. It was melted down by Revolutionaries in 1792, and replaced in 1818 with a replica commissioned by Louis XVIII.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
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| + | ===Divorce was abolished=== | ||
| + | Divorce legislation was introduced in France in 1792. Over subsequent years the law was reformed and divorce became harder to obtain. It was abolished in 1816.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
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| + | ===The lycées... colleges=== | ||
| + | The term lycée, introduced with the educational reforms under Napoleon in 1802 and replaced <ref name="donougher" /> | ||
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| + | ===during the Restoration with the pre-Revolutionary name collège, was reinstated after the 1848 Revolution.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
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| + | ===the king of Rome=== | ||
| + | The courtesy title of Napoleon’s son (1811–32) by the Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, whom Napoleon, when he abdicated in 1815, named as his heir. (For this reason the next Bonaparte to occupy the French throne, in 1852, styled himself Napoleon III.)<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
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| + | ===Her Royal Highness Madame... Duc d’Orléans... Duc de Berry... dragoons=== | ||
| + | Son altesse royale was the honorific title of the wife of the king’s brother (later Charles X), Marie Thérèse of Savoy. The future king Louis-Philippe, from a cadet branch of the Bourbons, inherited the title of Duc d’Orléans and the command of the hussars from his father, who was guillotined in 1793. Charles X’s younger son, the Duc de Berry, was colonel-general of the lancers, not the dragoons, whose colonel-general was his older brother the Duc d’Angoulême.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
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| + | ===Les Invalides=== | ||
| + | Louis XIV was the founder of Les Invalides, built as a hospital and home for veteran soldiers. The church of the Dome, a private royal chapel within the complex, designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1646–1708), was completed in 1706. Under Napoleon the Dome became the pantheon of France’s military heroes. Napoleon’s ashes were transferred there in 1840.<ref name="donougher" /> | ||
===Monsieur de Trinquelague=== | ===Monsieur de Trinquelague=== | ||
